Hatred of the clans. French wars of Religion, 1559-1610
The second half of the 16th century was the “dark part” of the Renaissance, marked in France by religious strife, civil disobedience and a radical calling into question of royal power.
An age of disorder and unreason which, in forty years and eight Wars of Religion, was to embroil the kingdom in a succession of confrontations, repressions, scandals and massacres, disrupting the country’s equilibrium in unprecedented ways.
It was also a turning point in national history, perhaps the most serious crisis suffered by the Ancien Régime before 1789: it left an indelible mark on our collective memory and imagination, in particular due to an unprecedented frenzy violence that came to a head in the blood-soaked episode of the Saint Bartholomew’s massacre.
The Musée de l’Armée is devoting an exhibition to the excessive yet fascinating history of the Wars of Religion. What were their driving forces? Issues? High points? Protagonists? The itinerary covers the frenetic turmoil that divided the kingdom after Henri II’s accidental death in 1559 and Henri IV’s assassination in 1610, bringing an end to the reign of the peacemaking sovereign who enacted the Edict of Nantes but, like his predecessor, was a victim of regicide. One after the other, the exhibition convenes all the era’s leading actors, whose armour is conserved in the Musée de l’Armée’s collections.
From the “ultra”-catholic League led by the Guises to the protestant clan headed by the Condés, by way of the Montmorency family’s more moderate party, aristocratic and political rivalries got involved in religious conflicts. Weaponry, portraits, archive documents and old books retrace the individual fates.
Curators – Musée de l’Armée
- Laëtitia Desserrières, Drawing Collection Manager, Fine Arts and Heritage Department
- Christine Duvauchelle, Middle East Archaeological Collections Manager, Ancien Régime Department
- Olivier Renaudeau, Chief Heritage Curator, Head of the Ancien Régime Department
- Morgane Varin, Assistant Curator, Ancien Régime department
1. Faith torn apart
From 1521, the publication of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses resonated within France, where the German monk’s tracts were printed and distributed.
At court, Margaret of Navarre, sister to Francis I and protector of the “Evangelicals” who were in favour of reforming the Roman Church, opposed the conservatism of the King’s counsellors.
The sovereign, on the other hand, oscillated between tolerance and severity when statues of saints were attacked and during the Placards affair in 1534, when posters against the Mass even proliferated within the royal residences.
2. At the French borders
Under Francis I and Henry II authority was reinforced and the royal administration was centralised. The kingdom of France was then the most populated kingdom in Europe, with numerous assets: rich farmland, significant manufacturing output and an emerging national sentiment.
However, the end of the Italian Wars in 1559 marked a turning point. Royal power was weakened by the bankruptcy of the State, by Henry II’s accidental death without an heir old enough to reign, and by the first religious disputes.
French society, faced with a number of uncertainties, rising prices, shortages, and the return of plague epidemics, turned to God, but at the same time lost confidence in His mediators (Roman Church and clergy); this generated great anguish and the phenomenon of conversions to the Reformation.
3. The art of starting a war
On Francis II’s ascent to the throne in 1560, his uncles Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, and Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine, entered the King’s Council where they exerted a strong influence.
In 1560 the Amboise Conspiracy, led by Protestants for the purpose of relieving the Guise family of its royal powers, was severely repressed and contributed to increased dissent.
The death of Francis II, on 5 December 1560, placed his brother Charles IX, who was still a minor, on the throne, instituting a period of regency under their mother, Catherine de Medici; this was marked by a policy of dialogue between the parties. But attempts at conciliation (the Estates-General of Orléans in 1560, the Colloquy of Poissy in 1561 and the Edict of January in 1562) all failed.
On top of the religious divisions, there were political rivalries between the great noble families, and social unrest during this period of serious financial crisis. Such tensions culminated in the outbreak of the first civil war in March/April 1562, accompanied by a wave of iconoclasm.
4. Violence and massacres. The Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre
The second half of the 16th century was a violent period during which assassinations and bloodshed multiplied.
The start of the Wars of Religion was marked by iconoclastic acts and the destruction of objects and images associated with religious worship, committed by the Huguenots. The Catholics responded to such vandalism with massacres designed to exterminate “heretics”, such as those carried out at Vassy, Sens, Tours and Orange. The Huguenots waited until the Second War of Religion to massacre the Catholics (Nîmes, 1567).
The climax of this bloodshed was the Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre in August 1572, the most well-known and violent episode in the Wars of Religion. It began with the assassination of Admiral de Coligny and Protestant leaders who were present in Paris on the day following the marriage between Henry of Navarre, the future Henry IV, and Margaret of Valois, sister to King Charles IX; it then degenerated into a generalised three-day bloodbath in Paris that spread to other cities.
5. The War of Minds, factions and regicide
Religious and political confrontations also played out on paper: encouraged by the success of the printing press, pamphlets, placards and propaganda in the form of tracts saturated opinion and reached all sections of the population.
This intense “War of Minds” was History’s first media conflict.
6. The Wars of Religion on the international stage
During the Wars of Religion, through Catherine de Medici, French royalty deployed active diplomacy with foreign courts, even beyond religious denominations. Wedding plans involving the royal children were one aspect of foreign policy. In addition, France pursued its intentions regarding overseas territories: from 1555, Admiral de Coligny initiated expeditions to Brazil and Florida where transitory colonies, perceived as threats by Spain and Portugal, allowed Catholics and Protestants to live side by side.
7. Political celebrations
To introduce her young son Charles IX to his kingdom, Catherine de Medici organised a long tour of France between 1564 and 1566.
This journey validated the policy of religious pacification and the re-establishment of public order ratified by the Edict of Amboise (1563) which ended the first War of Religion. This tour of France was an opportunity for great festivities featuring the culture of chivalry: feasts, balls, masquerades naumachiae and tournaments.
8. Governing in times of civil war
Despite the military conflicts, dissent and political ups and downs, the period of the Wars of Religion proved crucial to the construction of a monarchic state.
Upon Henry II’s death, the erosion of the monarchy’s authority provided the Greats (Montmorency, the Bourbons, Guise and Chatillon) with the opportunity to display their rivalries and their pretensions to the leadership of the Council and therefore royal government.
For forty years, despite party pressure and foreign interference, the Royal State attempted to keep the peace.
9. Reconciliations ?
On his accession to the throne, Henry IV was confronted with fierce internal opposition and was obliged to set about reconquering his kingdom and subjects. This involved armed combat and intensive propaganda.
However, the King relied more heavily on negotiations and concessions in his attempts to bring League members and former enemies back into the Royalist party.
10. And afterwards …
The Edict of Tolerance in 1598 provided only a brief respite in the long confrontation between the Catholic monarchy and the Protestants.
The definitive divide between politics and religion, between State and Faith, was accomplished through the Law of Separation of 1905 which remains in force today.
Curators – Musée de l’Armée :
- Laëtitia Desserrières, Manager of the Drawings Collection, Fine Arts and Heritage Department
- Christine Duvauchelle, Manager of the Archaeology and Middle East Collections, Ancien Régime Department
- Olivier Renaudeau, Chief Heritage Curator and Head of the Ancien Régime Department
- Morgane Varin, Assistant Exhibition Curator, Ancien Régime Department