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Secret preparation for war is a mission carried out by the military apparatus of modern States. In the late 19th century, this led to the creation of permanent intelligence services.
The First World War marked an important stage in their development: advances were made in the area of (de)coding and transmissions, and in organisation, with the setting up of spy networks.
Governmental control of censorship, propaganda and misinformation was put in place.
The Second World War extended and accentuated the previous developments. In a Europe submerged by Nazi Germany or Asia dominated by Japan, many governments in exile could only act in the shadows. This saw the start of the secret war and its associated methods of action: intelligence, clandestine operations, misinformation and destabilisation, going beyond the military and technical arenas into the political and ideological domain. State or parastate secret structures increased to a degree that had never seen before.
The Cold War saw the Western and Soviet blocs opposed against each other in a climate of extreme tension, fostered by public opinion on either side. The balance of force and awareness of the destructive character of their accumulated military capacities kept the two superpowers back from the threshold of outright conflagration. The secret war, in all its guises, therefore became their predominant mode of conflict, served by increasingly modernised technology such as computers and satellites. The degree of secrecy became increasingly thicker, particularly in the nuclear sector.
At the heart of the secret
––––––––––––––––––––––––Secret preparation for war is a mission carried out by the military apparatus of modern States. In the late 19th century, this led to the creation of permanent intelligence services.
The First World War marked an important stage in their development: advances were made in the area of (de)coding and transmissions, and in organisation, with the setting up of spy networks.
Governmental control of censorship, propaganda and misinformation was put in place.
The Second World War extended and accentuated the previous developments. In a Europe submerged by Nazi Germany or Asia dominated by Japan, many governments in exile could only act in the shadows. This saw the start of the secret war and its associated methods of action: intelligence, clandestine operations, misinformation and destabilisation, going beyond the military and technical arenas into the political and ideological domain. State or parastate secret structures increased to a degree that had never seen before.
The Cold War saw the Western and Soviet blocs opposed against each other in a climate of extreme tension, fostered by public opinion on either side. The balance of force and awareness of the destructive character of their accumulated military capacities kept the two superpowers back from the threshold of outright conflagration. The secret war, in all its guises, therefore became their predominant mode of conflict, served by increasingly modernised technology such as computers and satellites. The degree of secrecy became increasingly thicker, particularly in the nuclear sector.
Plaque at «2 bis» Avenue de Tourville, the Intelligence Services premises from 1932 to 1940
MUSÉE DE L’ARMÉE © Musée de l’Armée / Emilie Cambier
MUSÉE DE L’ARMÉE © Musée de l’Armée / Emilie Cambier
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Contemporary fiction, whether in the form of novels or cinema, often leaves its audience with a compelling image of a secret agent as a kind of superman for whom nothing is impossible, to the point where sometimes the fate of his country - or even the planet - depends on him alone.
Beyond the fantasy and myth, the reality for players in secret wars is much more complicated and diverse.
What’s an agent ?
––––––––––––––––––––––––Contemporary fiction, whether in the form of novels or cinema, often leaves its audience with a compelling image of a secret agent as a kind of superman for whom nothing is impossible, to the point where sometimes the fate of his country - or even the planet - depends on him alone.
Beyond the fantasy and myth, the reality for players in secret wars is much more complicated and diverse.
Strictly speaking, in order to be effective, agents must first of all operate with the greatest secrecy when their missions lead them abroad, either with diplomatic status or in a clandestine manner and sometimes, in the latter case, at a risk to their lives.
Their missions are very varied: gathering of information, misinformation, destabilisation, clandestine action...
Civilian or military, they form an integral part of the services in which other personnel organise their operations, prepare the materials which they need and analyse information.
Last but not least, they do not work alone: an essential part of their role involves forming a network of sources and informants around them. The motivation for these ‘sleeper’ or active agents, who are sometimes just occasional and come from varied social and professional backgrounds, can be the need for money, character or behaviour traits, a painful personal or family history, but also patriotism or political or ideological conviction.
Their missions are very varied: gathering of information, misinformation, destabilisation, clandestine action...
Civilian or military, they form an integral part of the services in which other personnel organise their operations, prepare the materials which they need and analyse information.
Last but not least, they do not work alone: an essential part of their role involves forming a network of sources and informants around them. The motivation for these ‘sleeper’ or active agents, who are sometimes just occasional and come from varied social and professional backgrounds, can be the need for money, character or behaviour traits, a painful personal or family history, but also patriotism or political or ideological conviction.
Uniform of an officer in the DDR Ministry of State Security (Stasi)
The Stasi (1950-1989) was the political police, intelligence, espionage and counterespionage service of the German Democratic Republic (DDR). Its main mission was to control the population of East Germany and ensure that no subversive activity was carried out against the «line» imposed by the DDR’s Communist party, the SED.
The Stasi (1950-1989) was the political police, intelligence, espionage and counterespionage service of the German Democratic Republic (DDR). Its main mission was to control the population of East Germany and ensure that no subversive activity was carried out against the «line» imposed by the DDR’s Communist party, the SED.
The agent: a complex notion
What is an agent?
Is the term itself appropriate?
Although this term is used for practical reasons, it hides a much more complex, varied reality. The exhibition tries to investigate all this complexity and the subtleties of the term, by offering the visitor a fun interactive device entitled Types of agent. This contains a diverse cast of secret war operators, such as cryptologists, officers operating under cover, clandestine radio operators, sources, bugging agents, administrators and liaison officers, to name a few...
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On some secret programmes, the junior personnel did not always know what the project was actually about. This was the case with the Oak Ridge experimental centre in Tennessee, the heart of the Manhattan project into nuclear research.
Before the Cold War and the creation of permanent institutions, some countries such as the United States and France set up special training schools, where the instructors were often former World War Two agents. The CIA found its recruits in university lecture theatres; from 1952, those intended for action on the ground were trained at a secret base in Virginia called the «Farm», where they were taught how to recruit a source or carry out clandestine operations abroad. The same year, in France, Robert Maloubier, a former SOE agent, founded the «combat divers» school at the SDECE (External Documentation and Counterespionage Service).
Recruitment and training
–––––––––––––––––––––––– Working for an intelligence or action service is not always a vocation and «agents» follow many different career paths. Before the Second World War, the military attachés were Army-trained career officers. After 1940, the emerging secret services - BCRA, SOE, OSS - needed to recruit and train rapidly, but rigorously, volunteers who were often completely unfamiliar with this world. It could take several months to train an agent before they were sent out into the field. Special Training Schools were set up in Britain, where physical training, parachute jumps, shadowing, sabotage, coding and radio transmissions were all on the programme.On some secret programmes, the junior personnel did not always know what the project was actually about. This was the case with the Oak Ridge experimental centre in Tennessee, the heart of the Manhattan project into nuclear research.
Before the Cold War and the creation of permanent institutions, some countries such as the United States and France set up special training schools, where the instructors were often former World War Two agents. The CIA found its recruits in university lecture theatres; from 1952, those intended for action on the ground were trained at a secret base in Virginia called the «Farm», where they were taught how to recruit a source or carry out clandestine operations abroad. The same year, in France, Robert Maloubier, a former SOE agent, founded the «combat divers» school at the SDECE (External Documentation and Counterespionage Service).
Cryptography course, Editions Berger-Levrault, 3rd edition Third Republic, 1936 General Marcel Givierge
The Artillery General Givierge, a specialist in cryptology, created a permanent cryptology section in the army in 1912. His Cryptography course, published for the first time in 1932, is an authority on the topic.
NATIONAL AGENCY OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS SECURITY (ANSSI)
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
The Artillery General Givierge, a specialist in cryptology, created a permanent cryptology section in the army in 1912. His Cryptography course, published for the first time in 1932, is an authority on the topic.
NATIONAL AGENCY OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS SECURITY (ANSSI)
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
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Within his or her own service, a secret agent may use a false name or pseudonym. On the ground, he or she may have one or more code names, for different external contacts. In Free France and the Resistance, for example, Daniel Cordier, a BCRA agent (French Central Bureau of Intelligence and Operations), went under the names of BIP W, Alain and Michel, among others. Others have passed into posterity under a single pseudonym, such as Passy (André Dewavrin, Head of the BCRA), H 21 (Margaretha Geertruida Zelle, known by her stage name Mata Hari), and Farewell (the Soviet dissident Vladimir Vetrov). For the purposes of a mission, an agent may also disguise themselves: by using make-up and dressing in various extravagant ways, a woman can take on several appearances; false tattoos or a false scar, easily identifiable by any witnesses, can be removed once the mission is complete; a pair of well-chosen glasses can significantly alter a face...
Constructing a story
––––––––––––––––––––––––Within his or her own service, a secret agent may use a false name or pseudonym. On the ground, he or she may have one or more code names, for different external contacts. In Free France and the Resistance, for example, Daniel Cordier, a BCRA agent (French Central Bureau of Intelligence and Operations), went under the names of BIP W, Alain and Michel, among others. Others have passed into posterity under a single pseudonym, such as Passy (André Dewavrin, Head of the BCRA), H 21 (Margaretha Geertruida Zelle, known by her stage name Mata Hari), and Farewell (the Soviet dissident Vladimir Vetrov). For the purposes of a mission, an agent may also disguise themselves: by using make-up and dressing in various extravagant ways, a woman can take on several appearances; false tattoos or a false scar, easily identifiable by any witnesses, can be removed once the mission is complete; a pair of well-chosen glasses can significantly alter a face...
The «story» is much more than that however: it is a fictional identity, sometimes requiring several years to be constructed and put in place, then become effective. In order to blend into the environment where they must operate, the agent, given new identity papers, may learn a new job and possibly change their appearance for good. Unlike agents who benefit from diplomatic cover, those who operate under a fictional identity are «illegals» who cannot hope for any protection if they are arrested.
Victor Otchenko’s glasses, a Soviet defector to France
Colonel Victor Otchenko, scientific attaché at the Russian Embassy in Paris, defected to the West in 1992. His defection led to the arrest of Francis Temperville, an engineer at the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Since 1989, Temperville had been sending the Soviet services intelligence, in exchange for money, on the results of the nuclear testing at Mururoa and French nuclear weapons plans. Temperville was sentenced to nine years in prison for treason.
© DGSI - Ministry of the Interior
Colonel Victor Otchenko, scientific attaché at the Russian Embassy in Paris, defected to the West in 1992. His defection led to the arrest of Francis Temperville, an engineer at the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Since 1989, Temperville had been sending the Soviet services intelligence, in exchange for money, on the results of the nuclear testing at Mururoa and French nuclear weapons plans. Temperville was sentenced to nine years in prison for treason.
© DGSI - Ministry of the Interior
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Most of the services that carry out intelligence activities have specialist workshops capable of producing equipment for the specific needs of the missions. The James Bond films popularised «Q», an inventor of some very extravagant gadgets. This legendary character was not the product of Ian Fleming’s imagination, he was in fact modelled on Charles Bovill, Head of the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) technical department, who supplied equipment to the agents who parachuted into occupied Europe to support the various Resistance movements.
Legendary weapons, such as the Welrod silenced pistol and various types of daggers were developed to carry out discreet assassinations, while a whole arsenal of sabotage devices was specially designed in the SOE and OSS workshops. With the advent of the Cold War, the secret services refocused their attention on spying. The purpose was to identify any preparations for war on either side of the Iron Curtain. Special silenced or concealed weapons continued to be used until the early 1960s, but gradually disappeared in favour of highly discreet cameras and audio recorders. Using great ingenuity, the workshops of the Soviet, American, French and British secret services managed to create devices camouflaged as ordinary objects, which allowed them to photograph documents in formats that were small enough to be concealed, transported and then analysed.
The agent’s methods
––––––––––––––––––––––––Most of the services that carry out intelligence activities have specialist workshops capable of producing equipment for the specific needs of the missions. The James Bond films popularised «Q», an inventor of some very extravagant gadgets. This legendary character was not the product of Ian Fleming’s imagination, he was in fact modelled on Charles Bovill, Head of the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) technical department, who supplied equipment to the agents who parachuted into occupied Europe to support the various Resistance movements.
Legendary weapons, such as the Welrod silenced pistol and various types of daggers were developed to carry out discreet assassinations, while a whole arsenal of sabotage devices was specially designed in the SOE and OSS workshops. With the advent of the Cold War, the secret services refocused their attention on spying. The purpose was to identify any preparations for war on either side of the Iron Curtain. Special silenced or concealed weapons continued to be used until the early 1960s, but gradually disappeared in favour of highly discreet cameras and audio recorders. Using great ingenuity, the workshops of the Soviet, American, French and British secret services managed to create devices camouflaged as ordinary objects, which allowed them to photograph documents in formats that were small enough to be concealed, transported and then analysed.
A Bulgarian umbrella
The legendary «Bulgarian» umbrella was in fact invented by the KGB, but it became well known in 1978 when the Bulgarian secret services used it against the dissident writer Georgi Markov. On 7 September of that year, he was waiting for his bus in London when he was jostled by a man holding an umbrella. In actual fact, a minuscule pellet of ricin was embedded in the end of the umbrella and injected into the body of the victim, who felt the pressure of an object against his body, but thought it was harmless. Markov died a few days later, on 11 September. The number of such umbrellas made is unknown, and this is one of the rare examples now on public display.
Bulgarian umbrella
MALDON, COMBINED MILITARY SERVICES MUSEUM
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
MALDON, COMBINED MILITARY SERVICES MUSEUM
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
Discretion is key
Secret wars necessarily involve discretion. On this point, the secret services rivalled each other in inventiveness to create ever-smaller, ever more effective objects. During the Second World War, the British SOE equipped its agents on the ground with lightweight equipment such as a miniature telescope or a fold-up shovel, which agents took with them when they parachuted into enemy territory. However, the intelligence services were also able to use equipment for specific users, perfectly suiting their needs, such as the Minox camera, produced in Germany after the war, which over time became the most popular «spy» camera.
Miniature Tessina automatic 35mm camera, hidden in a packet of cigarettes, used by the SDECE
Cold War
DGSE - Ministry of Defence
Cold War
DGSE - Ministry of Defence
Explosives or messages ?
Between the Second World War and the Cold War, the enemy changed and so did the challenges faced and the methods used. Although MI9 and the SOE rivalled each other in inventiveness to create equipment for clandestine operations, the transmission of intelligence was mainly done in two ways: through radio waves and liaison agents, whose symbolic attribute was a bicycle. Inspired by the everyday objects used to camouflage explosives during times of open war, the Cold War services transformed some of the smallest and most unusual objects into dead drops.
Dead drop in the form of a branch
Cold War
MALDON, COMBINED MILITARY SERVICES MUSEUM
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
Cold War
MALDON, COMBINED MILITARY SERVICES MUSEUM
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
Objects can also be camouflaged
What if the mythical «Q» in James Bond had really existed? From 1941, during World War II, the SOE had a «Research and Development» department which equipped agents according to the missions they undertook. The equipment was compiled in a catalogue, the Descriptive catalogue of special devices and supplies, listing the objects and their features. During the Cold War, the intelligence services also rivalled each other in imagination to produce equipment with two possible uses, one official, the other clandestine, such as this miniature camera hidden in a packet of real cigarettes.
Minox camera, produced in Germany after the war, which over time became the most popular «spy» camera.
Cold War, 1974
DGSE - Ministry of Defence
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette
Cold War, 1974
DGSE - Ministry of Defence
© Musée de l’Armée / Pascal Segrette